Changes from report parliamentary committee draft to plenary report

Added(23) As in the electricity sector, market flexibilities and an adequate Union consumer rights’ legal framework in the natural gas sector are essential and the natural gas sector should be reinforced to ensure that consumers can participate in the energy transition and benefit from affordable prices, good standards of service, and effective choice of offers mirroring sustainable technological developments. Unlike in the electricity sector, natural gas consumer should be protected from rising tariffs when natural gas assets have to be depreciated, from cross subsidisation between gas and hydrogen users and rising gas tariffs with a shrinking customer base. The role of gaseous fuels for heating or cooling in buildings will decline in the future due to renewable alternatives, in particular electrification, district heating or thermal renewable energy.

RemovedThis amendments aims to clarify the definition of low carbon fuels by setting a fossil fuel comparator in accordance with the methodology used for RFNBOs and recycled carbon fuels in the Renewable Energy Directive (EU) 2018/2001 and by specifying the life cycle assessment of emissions.

Added(24) The switch from fossil gas to renewable alternatives will concretise if energy from renewable sources becomes an attractive, non-discriminatory choice for consumers based on truly transparent information where the transition costs are fairly distributed among different groups of consumers and market players. However, unlike in the electricity sector, switching from gas to other renewable technologies is usually not as easy due to the lock-in effect related to the underpinning infrastructure. Mandatory fuel switches should be accompanied by measures that remove adverse effects on final customers, in particular vulnerable customers and people affected by or at risk of energy poverty, as well as measures that mitigate and resolve inequalities resulting from the energy transition.

RemovedArticle 8 – paragraph 5 a (new): 5a. The Commission may adopt delegated acts in accordance with Article 83 to amend this Directive by adapting the threshold referred to in paragraph 5 for low carbon fuels produced in installations starting operations from 1 January 2031. The methodology established pursuant to paragraph 5 shall be in line with the methodology used to determine the greenhouse gas emissions reductions in accordance with Article 27 of Directive (EU) 2018/2001, in order to ensure equal treatment of all renewable and low carbon gases and fuels and to avoid the double counting of recycled carbon fuels. The methodology shall ensure that credit for avoided emissions is not given for carbon dioxide the capture of which has already received an emission credit under other provisions of law.

Added(25) To address the current gaps in the retail gas market, it is necessary to tackle the existing competition and technical barriers to the emergence of alternative, renewables-based energy supply, new services, better levels of service, and lower consumer prices, whilst ensuring the protection of ▌vulnerable consumers and customers affected by or at risk of energy poverty.

RemovedIn line with Recital 9, the Commission may adapt the threshold to take into account technological developments.

Added(26) In order to ensure a high level of consumer protection and empowerment consistently across energy sectors, the legislative framework in the decarbonised gas market law should reflect the electricity market customer protection and where relevant its empowerment provisions and take into account the energy system efficiency, the Union's objectives on security of supply, energy efficiency and renewable energy.

RemovedArticle 8 – paragraph 10: 10. Member States shall also require the relevant economic operators to enter into the Union database information on the transactions made and the sustainability characteristics of low carbon fuels in line with the requirements established in Article 28 of Directive (EU) 2018/2001.The interconnected natural gas and hydrogen system shall be considered to be a single mass balance system. The Union database shall be implemented as soon as possible and in any event by ... [the date of entry into force of this Directive].

Added(27) To be coherent and effective, this mirroring approach should be encompass all consumer protection and empowerment provisions, whenever feasible and adaptable to the gas market. This should go from basic contractual rights to rules for billing information, switching energy provider, having at disposal reliable comparison tools, protecting vulnerable customers and customers affected by or at risk of energy poverty, ensuring adequate data protection for smart meters and data management, and efficient alternative dispute resolution rules. Smart meters should be deployed only after a positive cost-benefit assessment.

RemovedA Union wide mass balance system is important to support an integrated and liquid market for renewable gases.

Added(28) In pursuing the consistency of provisions across sectors, burdens for national administrations and businesses should be limited and proportionate by also building on the experience with the Clean Energy for All Europeans Package.

RemovedArticle 11 a (new): Article 11a / Mandatory fuel switch / 1. Member States shall ensure that final customers are fully informed by their distribution system operator and supplier of any mandatory fuel switches for households from gas heating to other forms of heating, and shall ensure that distribution system operators and suppliers provide that information sufficiently in advance of any planned mandatory switch. / 2. Distribution system operators and suppliers shall provide final customers with a roadmap for the transfer from gas to alternative heat sources, including the procedure and the relevant timeline. / 3. Member States shall ensure that final customers receive information on options to prepare or adapt their homes and on any support available to manage the costs associated with the planned mandatory fuel switch. / 4. Discrimination and cross-subsidisation between different categories of customers and between energy carriers shall be avoided when carrying out a mandatory fuel switch. / 5. Member States shall ensure that measures are put in place to mitigate and resolve any inequities resulting from policies to decarbonise the energy system. / 6. Member States shall take all measures necessary to ensure that fuel switches implemented pursuant to this Article have no adverse effect on final customers, vulnerable customers, people affected by or at risk of energy poverty and people living in social housing. Where applicable, Member States shall make the best possible use of funding, includi…

Added(29) The modernisation and decarbonisation of the gas sector is expected to lead to substantial economic and environmental benefits in terms of both improved retail competition and its social and distributional benefits and customer empowerment, including strengthened contractual rights and better available information on consumption and energy sources leading to greener choices, which also include uptaking energy efficiency measures and reducing or switching from fossil gas to other more sustainable and energy efficient renewable energy sources. Acknowledging the need to produce biomethane, respecting the sustainability criteria laid down in Directive (EU) 2018/2001, environmental standards, such as prevention of methane leakage as well as the avoidance of food security issues, local biomethane production and supply could lead to economic benefits at the local level, in particular for the agricultural sector, and household and non-household customers located in the proximity of production areas. As an organisational concept aiming to drive social innovation, renewable energy communities as set out in Directive (EU) 2018/2001 should contribute to the uptake of renewable gas.

RemovedStructured fuel switches due to the electrification of residential heating and the deployment of district heating at local or regional level will directly affect household consumers. On the one hand, a mass fuel switch would oblige certain customers to change their fuel and related equipment in their homes. On the other hand, the possible transfer of assets and decommissioning of the affected gas network could have financial implications for a broad set of consumers still remaining on the gas network. Consumer protection provisions should be foreseen for such situations.

Added(30) Switching is an important indicator of customer engagement as well as an important tool to boost competition on both the natural gas and hydrogen markets and should therefore be guaranteed as a basic right to costumers. However, switching rates remain inconsistent among Member States and consumers are discouraged from switching both energy source and supplier by exit and termination fees. Although removing such fees might limit customer choice by eliminating products based on rewarding customer loyalty, restricting their use further should improve consumer welfare, consumer engagement and competition in the market, including promoting the use of biomethane and other low-carbon gas and renewable gas.

RemovedArticle 16 – paragraph 2: 2. Member States shall proceed with the deployment in their territories of smart metering systems only after a positive cost-benefit assessment which clearly assesses and specifies the benefits to consumers that arise from the use of smart meters and signing up for smart meter-enabled offers, which shall be undertaken in accordance with the principles laid down in Annex II.

Added(31) Shorter switching times are likely to encourage customers to search for better energy deals and switch supplier. With the increased deployment of information technology, by the year 2026, the technical switching process of registering a new supplier in a metering point at the market operator should typically be possible to complete within 24 hours on any working day. Ensuring that it is possible by that date for the technical process of switching to take place within 24 hours would minimise switching times, helping to increase consumer engagement and retail competition.

RemovedSmart metering in gas has less benefits than in electricity as there is limited opportunity for demand response. The deployment of smart meters should thus be based mandatorily on a cost-benefit assessment to avoid stranded investments for consumers.

Added(32) Several factors impede customers from accessing, understanding and acting upon the various sources of market information available to them. It follows that the comparability of offers should be improved, through adequate customer information, including on the environmental impact of the energy offers, and comparison tools for all customers, and unjustified barriers to switching should be removed without unduly limiting customer choice.

RemovedArticle 16 – paragraph 3 a (new): 3a. Member States that proceed with the deployment of smart metering systems shall develop guidelines for the provision of clear and understandable information and advice to consumers about the benefits of smart meters in consultation with consumer bodies and other relevant organisations. Those guidelines shall at least: / (a) include advice on how customer groups can use their smart metering system to improve their energy efficiency; / (b) establish industry wide standards to address the specific needs of vulnerable customers such as visually impaired, hearing impaired, and those with low levels of literacy; / (c) include local engagement strategies to enlist support of authorities and support services to explain how smart appliances can benefit vulnerable customers and customers affected by or at risk of energy poverty.

Added(33) Independent comparison tools, including websites, are an effective means for smaller customers to assess the merits of the different energy offers that are available on the market. They should aim to include the broadest possible range of available offers, and to cover the market as completely as is feasible so as to give the customer a representative overview in a clear and easy to understand manner. Where the environmental impact is promoted as an essential feature of the offer, comparison tools should also include a description of that environmental impact. It is crucial that smaller customers have access to at least one comparison tool and that the information given on such tools be trustworthy, impartial, transparent and easy to understand. To that end, Member States could provide for a comparison tool that is operated by a national authority or a private company. It is also vital to provide customers with a clear and understandable pre-contractual information, so that they are fully aware about the details and consequences of the contract.

RemovedIf gas smart meters are rolled out, engagement strategies explaining consumers how they can benefit from them shall be implemented in order to enable consumers to actually improve their energy efficiency.

Added(34) In some instances, final customers, in particular those in the agricultural sector or at local or municipal level, are able to consume, to store and to sell self-generated renewable gas. To the extent that they are able to undertake those activities while respecting environmental standards, including the mitigation of methane emissions, those customers should be able to participate in all natural gas markets, including local supply, providing ancillary services to the system, for instance through energy storage, while maintaining their rights as final customers. Such collective arrangements between active customers can provide opportunities for service providers and local businesses, in particular small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), to contribute to local system balancing and flexibility. Member States should be able to have different provisions in their national law with respect to taxes and levies for individual and jointly-acting active customers.

RemovedArticle 16 – paragraph 4: 4. Member States that proceed with the deployment of smart metering systems shall ensure that final customers contribute to the associated costs of the deployment in a transparent and non-discriminatory manner, while taking into account the long-term benefits to the whole value chain. Member States or, where a Member State has so provided, the designated competent authorities, shall regularly monitor such deployment in their territories to track the delivery of benefits to consumers. Benefits to network operations in terms of savings, in particular due to better network management, more efficient fault clearing, more precise planning and the identification of network losses, shall be subtracted when calculating customers’ contribution.

Added▌

RemovedAs smart meters lead to a reduction of costs for system operators for the management of their networks, consumers shall not be burdened with the full cost of a smart meter installation, if such deployment takes place.

Added(37) Bills and billing information are an important means to inform and empower final customers. Energy bills remain the most common consumer concern and source of consumer complaints, a factor that contributes to the persistently low levels of consumer satisfaction and engagement in the gas sector. Provisions for billing information in the gas sector also lag behind rights granted to consumers in the electricity sector. It is therefore necessary to align them and to set minimum requirements for bills and billing information in the gas sector, so that consumers have access to transparent, complete, easy to understand information. Bills should convey information to the final customers on their consumption and costs, greenhouse gas emission intensity, type of energy, its share and quantity, thus facilitating comparison between offers and switching supplier or energy sources, as well as information on their consumer rights (such as on alternative dispute resolution). In addition, bills should be a tool to actively engage consumers in the market, so that consumers can manage their consumption patterns and make greener choices. It is important to provide comprehensive and accurate information to consumers to ensure they are aware of their environmental impact and, thus, consumers can express their preference for the most sustainable energy carriers.

RemovedArticle 17: deleted / (deleted) / (deleted) / (deleted) / (deleted)

Added(38) The regular provision of accurate billing information based on actual gas consumption ▌is important to help customers to control their gas consumption and costs. Nevertheless, customers, in particular household customers, should have access to flexible arrangements for the actual payment of their bills.

RemovedIn the expectation that the development of the hydrogen sector will initially concentrate on industrial and/or heavy transport use, rather than domestic use by households, Article 17 should be understood to apply to the installation of smart meters by industrial hydrogen customers. The inclusion of Article 17 within Chapter III on Consumer empowerment and protection, may create unintentional expectations regarding the intended deployment and users of these meters. Therefore, the Article has been moved to Chapter VII on Rules applicable to the dedicated hydrogen networks.

Added(39) A key aspect in supplying customers is access to objective and transparent consumption data. Thus, consumers should have access to their consumption data and associated prices and services costs so that they can invite competitors to make an offer based on that information. Consumers should also have the right to be properly informed about their energy consumption. Prepayments should not place a disproportionate disadvantage on their users, while different payment systems should be non-discriminatory. Information on energy costs provided to consumers frequently enough should create incentives for energy savings because it will give customers direct feedback on the effects of investment in energy efficiency and change of behaviour.

RemovedArticle 20 – paragraph 1: 1. Where final natural gas customers do not have smart meters, Member States shall ensure that, in so far as it is technically possible, financially reasonable and proportionate to the potential energy savings, final customers are provided with individual conventional meters that accurately measure their actual consumption.

Added(40) ▌ Deciding at national level on the deployment of natural gas smart metering systems for customers should be dependent on a positive cost-benefit assessment, to avoid stranded investments for customers. That economic assessment should take into account the long-term benefits of the deployment of smart metering systems to customers, including customers’ benefits arising from the use of smart meters and signing up for smart meter-enabled offers, and the whole value chain. Should that assessment conclude that the introduction of such metering systems is economically reasonable and cost-effective only for industrial consumers with a certain amount of natural gas consumption, Member States should be able to take this into account when proceeding with deployment. ▌

RemovedThe unconditional requirement ´for the deployment of conventional meters is problematic in some Eastern Central European Member States, like Hungary, which have a significant number of socialist era apartment blocks for which it is neither technically nor economically feasible to equip them with individual conventional meters, also considering decarbonisation objectives. These mostly district heated households use only small amounts of gas mainly for cooking.

Added(41) In order to assist final customers’ active participation in the market, the smart metering systems that could be deployed, subject to a positive cost-benefit assessment, should have due regard to the use of relevant available standards, including those enabling interoperability on the level of the data model and the application layer, to best practices and the importance of the development of data exchange, to future and innovative energy services. Moreover, the smart metering systems that are deployed should not represent a barrier to switching supplier in the case of natural gas consumers, and should be equipped with fit-for-purpose functionalities that allow final customers to have timely access to their consumption data, to modulate their energy behaviour, be rewarded for it, and obtain savings in their bills. Consumer groups should be advised on how to improve their energy efficiency by using smart meters.

RemovedArticle 25 – title: Vulnerable customers and energy poverty

Added(42) Member States that do not systematically deploy smart metering in the natural gas system should allow industrial consumers to benefit from the installation of a smart meter, upon request and under fair and reasonable conditions, and should provide them with all the relevant information.

RemovedArticle 25 – paragraph 1: Member States shall take appropriate measures to protect final customers, and shall, in particular, ensure that there are adequate safeguards to protect vulnerable customers and people affected by or at risk of energy poverty. In this context, vulnerable customers shall be defined as those living below the 60% of the national median equivalised disposable income. / For the purpose of adopting a uniform definition of customers affected by or at risk of energy poverty, Member States shall take into account at least the following criteria: / (a) the share of energy costs in proportion to disposable income, after deduction of housing costs, is more than double the national median share; / (b) the share of disposable income spent on energy services is above the national median and the disposable income after energy and housing costs is equal to or below the “risk of poverty” threshold; / (c) the absolute energy expenditure is lower than half the national median energy expenditure. / Measures to protect vulnerable consumers and people affected by or at risk of energy poverty may include, inter alia, to the prohibition of disconnection to such customers in critical times.

Added(43) Currently, different models for the management of data have been developed or are under development in Member States following deployment of smart metering systems. Independently of the data management model it is important that Member States put in place transparent rules that data can be accessed under non-discriminatory conditions and ensure the highest level of cybersecurity and data protection as well as the impartiality of the entities which process data.

RemovedThe current monitoring framework of energy poverty is based on qualitative indicators. A quantitative approach would be more objective and precise, thus more usable by public authorities, e.g. for fiscal policies and tax authorities. The indicators are based on a study published by Triconomics for the European Commission: “Selecting indicators to measure Energy Poverty”.

Added(44) Greater consumer protection is guaranteed by the availability of effective means of dispute settlement for all costumers. Member States should provide for speedy and effective complaint handling procedures. Guidance about where and how to complain should be provided in costumer contracts and billing information.

RemovedArticle 25 – paragraph 2 a (new): For final customers who are not connected to the natural gas or hydrogen systems due to the lack of infrastructure capacity or due to the fact that they are vulnerable or are affected or at risk of energy poverty, Member States shall, without delay,adopt measures to ensure their energy security, including by providing connection to the grid or alternative and comparable heating and cooling options.

Added(45) Member States should take appropriate measures, such as providing benefits by means of their social security systems, to ensure the necessary supply to vulnerable customers, or providing for support for energy efficiency improvements, including building renovations, and renewable energy deployment, to sustainably address energy poverty where identified pursuant to Article 3(3), point (d) of Regulation (EU) 2018/1999 of the European Parliament and of the Council and Directive (EU) .../...+, including in the broader context of poverty. Such measures could differ according to the particular circumstances in the Member States in question and should include social or energy policy measures relating to the payment of any gas bills, to investment in the energy efficiency of residential buildings, or to consumer protection such as disconnection safeguards. Disconnection of vulnerable customers or customers affected by or at risk of energy poverty should be prohibited in critical times and in any event during the winter.

RemovedArticle 25 a (new): Article 25a / Energy poverty and energy security monitoring / By ... [two years after the date of entry into force of this Directive] and every two years thereafter, the Commission shall adopt and make publicly available a report mapping the level of energy poverty and risk of energy poverty in each Member State and per NUTS3 level. / The report shall provide at least the following elements: / (a) an assessment of the situation and developments of energy prices in Member States and in the Union market and the impact on households affected by or at risk of energy poverty and on how energy prices impact their energy security, including an assessment of whether changes in retail energy prices are due to an ineffective implementation of this Directive and of the lack of adequate market conditions, including insufficient competition between suppliers or anti-competitive conducts; / (b) an assessment of the underlying conditions for the emergence of energy poverty, including an assessment of whether energy poverty is due to lack of infrastructure capacity, income situations or housing conditions; / (c) a detailed mapping of social instruments and measures implemented in Member States to address energy poverty. / The Commission shall use, inter alia, the criteria set out in Article 25 to identify and report on the number of households that are affected by or at risk of energy poverty.

Added(46) Pursuant to Regulation (EU) 2018/1999 and Directive (EU) 2019/944 ▌, the Commission provided indicative guidance on appropriate indicators for measuring energy poverty and defining a ‘significant number of households in energy poverty’. Directive (EU) .../...+ provides for a clear definition and a back-up set of criteria in the event that a Member State fails to define energy poverty in accordance with the relevant law.

RemovedArticle 31 – paragraph 1: 1. Member States shall ensure the implementation of a system of regulated third party access to hydrogen networks based on published tariffs and applied objectively and without discrimination between any hydrogen network users. If there is less capacity than potential users, in the event of a conflict, priority should be given to potential users who can demonstrate the highest potential of greenhouse gas abatement. This shall not apply to access to the hydrogen network that has already been granted by the date of the conflict.

Added(47) The simplification and streamlining of administrative permit granting processes and clear time limits for decisions to be taken by the authorities competent for issuing an authorisation should ensure that the deployment of hydrogen production facilities and hydrogen system infrastructure can occur at an adequate pace without hampering public consultations. Member States should be requested to report on progress made. Grandfathering of authorisations (such as licences, permissions, concessions or approvals), granted under national law for the construction and operation of existing natural gas pipelines and other network assets, is needed once the transported gaseous energy carrier in a gas pipeline changes from natural gas to (pure) hydrogen. This should prevent undue delay in repurposing existing natural gas pipelines and other networks assets for hydrogen transport. It should be avoided that conditions for granting authorisations for hydrogen system infrastructure are materially different unless sufficiently justified. Technical safety considerations could justify a differentiated approach in grandfathering existing or issuing new authorisations. The provisions on authorisation procedures should apply without prejudice to international and Union law, including provisions to protect the environment, biodiversity and human health. Where duly justified on the grounds of extraordinary circumstances, it should be possible to extend the time limits for authorisation procedures by up to one year.

RemovedIn the early stages of the market development, hydrogen use should be prioritised for hard to decarbonise sectors where no other options where no other more energy and cost efficient options are available.

Added(48) Providing guidance to applicants throughout their administrative permit application and granting processes by means of an administrative contact point is intended to reduce complexity for project developers and increase efficiency and transparency. The availability for applicants to submit relevant documents in digital form and the availability of a manual of procedures for applicants could contribute to efficiency. Member States should ensure that the authorities implementing authorisation procedures are actively involved in the tackling of remaining barriers, including non-financial ones such as insufficient knowledge, digital and human resources that hinder their processing of a growing number of authorisation procedures.

RemovedArticle 33 – paragraph 1: Member States may choose between a negotiated or regulated third party access regime, or both, to hydrogen storage, and line pack when technically and/or economically necessary for providing efficient access to the system for the supply of customers, as well as for the organisation of access to ancillary services, based on published tariffs and applied objectively and without discrimination between any hydrogen system users. Member States shall base their decision on the applicable access regime on an assessment of the level of competition in the hydrogen storage market, taking into account the technical characteristics of hydrogen storage. In the case of a regulated access regime, Member States shall ensure that those tariffs, or the methodologies underlying their calculation, are approved prior to their entry into force in accordance with Article 72 by the regulatory authority.

Added(49) Without effective separation of networks from activities of production and supply (effective unbundling), there is a risk of discrimination not only in the operation of the network but also in the incentives for vertically integrated undertakings to invest adequately in their networks.

RemovedIt is premature to conclude on the default type of access to all hydrogen storage facilities irrespective of their technical characteristics (e.g. availability, capacity, withdrawal regime, cycles of the storage, limitations related to the availability of electricity generation). Also, it is not yet clear to what extent existing natural gas storage facilities can be repurposed to store hydrogen.

Added(50) The rules on legal and functional unbundling as provided for in Directive 2003/55/EC have not, however, led to effective unbundling of the transmission system operators. At its meeting on 8 and 9 March 2007, the European Council therefore invited the Commission to develop legislative proposals for the ‘effective separation of supply and production activities from network operations’.

RemovedArticle 34 – paragraph 2: 2. Taking into account national and Union decarbonisation objectives, Member States shall, without delay, take appropriate measures to ensure that the natural gas or hydrogen undertaking refusing access or connection to the natural gas system or hydrogen system on the basis of lack of capacity or a lack of connection makes the necessary enhancements as far as it is economic to do so or when a potential customer is willing to pay for them.

Added(51) Only the removal of the incentive for vertically integrated undertakings to discriminate against competitors as regards network access and investment can ensure effective unbundling. Ownership unbundling, which implies the appointment of the network owner as the system operator and its independence from any supply and production interests, is clearly an effective and stable way to solve the inherent conflict of interests and to ensure security of supply. For that reason, the European Parliament, in its resolution of 10 July 2007 on prospects for the internal gas and electricity market referred to ownership unbundling at transmission level as the most effective tool to promote investments in infrastructure in a non-discriminatory way, fair access to the network for new entrants and transparency in the market. Under ownership unbundling, Member States should therefore be required to ensure that the same person or persons are not entitled to exercise control over a production or supply undertaking and, at the same time, exercise control or any right over a transmission system operator or transmission system. Conversely, control over a transmission system or transmission system operator should preclude the possibility of exercising control or any right over a production or supply undertaking. Within those limits, a production or supply undertaking should be able to have a minority shareholding in a transmission system operator or transmission system.

RemovedArticle 35 – paragraph 1 – point a: (a) operate, maintain, develop and decommission under economic conditions secure, reliable and efficient transmission, storage or LNG facilities to secure an open market, with due regard to the environment, the obligations laid down in [Regulation (EU) 2022/ … (Methane Regulation)] ensure adequate means to meet service obligations;

Added(52) Any system for unbundling should be effective in removing any conflict of interests between producers, suppliers and transmission system operators, in order to create incentives for the necessary investments and guarantee the access of new market entrants under a transparent and efficient regulatory regime and should not create an overly onerous regulatory regime for regulatory authorities.

RemovedSince the ten-year network development plan includes the decommissioning of infrastructure, consequentially, this should also be a task of transmission network operators.

Added(53) The definition of the term ‘control’ is taken from Council Regulation (EC) No 139/2004 of 20 January 2004 on the control of concentrations between undertakings (the EC Merger Regulation).

RemovedArticle 35 – paragraph 4: 4. Transmission system operators shall ensure efficient gas quality management in their facilities in line with applicable gas quality standards in order to meet the quality requirements of different end-user applications.